OUR AUTHORS-4-2019
OUR AUTHORS
ABRAMOV V.L. – Doctor of Sciences (economics), Professor, Chief researcher, Institute for international studies of economic relations, Financial University under the Government of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia.
AFANASYEVA E.V. – Candidate of Sciences (history), Associate Professor, Institute of world civilizations, Moscow, Russia.
ALIYEV U.S. – PhD of Law, Master of Psychology, PhD student at the International Security and Russian Foreign Policy Activities Chair, National Security Department, Institute of Law and National Security, Moscow, Russia.
BITIEVA Z.R. – Candidate of Sciences(political sciences), Head of the Department of world civilizations and world politics, Institute of world civilizations, Moscow, Russia.
DATUKISHVILI E.Z. – Post-graduate student of the Chair of political science and political administration, Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration, Moscow, Russia.
DAVYDOV V.N. – Candidate of Sciences (political sciences), Associate Professor, Deputy Director of the Institute of contemporary politics, Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia, Moscow, Russia.
DENISOV A.S. – Post-graduate student at the Chair of political science and political administration, School of political research, Institute of Social Sciences, Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration, Moscow, Russia.
КАRATUEVA E.N. – Candidate of Sciences (political sciences), Associate Professor at the Chair of management of social and political processes and history, St. Petersburg State Agrarian University, St. Petersburg, Russia.
KHANALIEV N.U. – Candidate of Sciences (political sciences), First Secretary, Department for New Challenges and Threats of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia.
KHOPERSKAYA L.L. – Doctor of Sciences (political science), Professor at the Chair of International Relations, Kyrgyz-Russian Slavic University, Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic.
MEDVEDEV N.P. – Doctor of Sciences (political sciences), Professor, Peoples' Friendship University of Russia, Moscow, Russia.
NAZAROV A.D. – Professor, Doctor of Sciences (history), Chair of advertising and public relations, Institute of foreign languages of Moscow Aviation Institute (National Research University) (MAI), Moscow, Russia.
PROKOFIEV V.A. – Student of the Humanities faculty of the Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain.
SAVALKHA O. – Postgraduate student at the Department of humanities and social sciences, Peoples' Friendship University of Russia, Moscow, Russia.
SLIZOVSKIY D.E. – Doctor of Sciences (history), Professor, Peoples' Friendship University of Russia, Moscow, Russia.
Slizovskiy D.E., Medvedev N.P. Reflections on the Read
DOI 10.35775/PSI.2020.34.4.012
D. E. SLIZOVSKIY Doctor of Sciences (history), Professor, Peoples' Friendship University of Russia, Moscow, Russia
N. P. MEDVEDEV Doctor of Sciences (political sciences), Professor, Peoples' Friendship University of Russia, Moscow, Russia
REFLECTIONS ON THE READ
The review analyzes not only the content of the article “Russian roots in Crimea” written by the famous scientist-researcher L. F. Boltenkova and published in journal Issues of National and Federative Relations No. 8, Vol.9, 2019, but also explores the logic of presentation. An attempt is made to answer the question why such studies appear in the scientific literature today. The article, albeit briefly, but clearly traces a historical connection of the territories that form modern Russia: Crimea, the North Caucasus, the Volga region, Siberia, etc. since the time B.C. Historically, Russian roots appeared in Crimea naturally, in the period before Kiev Rus, they strengthened during the Kiev period of the Ancient Russian state. Due to the loss of sovereignty by Kiev and its entry into the Lithuanian-Polish state, successive Russian relations with Crimea were historically carried out by North-Eastern Russia (Moscow). Although the main form of communications was “attack-defense,” but they forged the victory of Russia (Moscow) at the cost of incredible victims.
Key words: geopolitics, history, Crimea, Russia, "Scythia", Khazar Khaganate, Byzantium, Tmutarakan Principality, Chersonese (Kherson), Moscow.
The article “Russian roots in Crimea” written by the famous scientist-researcher L. F. Boltenkova and published in journal Issues of National and Federative Relations No. 8, Vol. 9, 2019, from our point of view, has several levels of analysis: the first level is the geopolitical view and the narrative about the habitation “since the time B.C.” and the movement of numerous tribes in these territories, some of which are now part of the Russian Federation. We see an attempt to explain the historical relationship of the “territories forming modern Russia,” where Crimea is naturally included. This level of analysis has already been partially tested, including in relation to Crimea (1).
Another level is the author’s personal reaction in respect of historical subjects, facts and events, real and mythical, given in documents, and presented in historical studies by masters of the word and historical science. We believe that we can say with full confidence that the article has a cognitive, explanatory and assertive value. The essence of this value is that the reader has an opportunity to observe the author’s creative search and together with the author be in the position of an analyst-researcher. Together they can mutually formulate the answer as an imperative of living and natural intersections and connections of the past and the actual present. This imperative formula is given by the author in the following sentence: “although the main form of communications was “attack-defense,” but they forged the victory of Russia (Moscow) at the cost of incredible victims.”
It should be emphasized that the works of Russian authors published in recent years cover a wide range of issues in this subject [4; 17; 10. Pp. 157-172; 11; 14. Pp. 80-90; 15; 12. Pp. 20-26].
We would like to add to the above the efforts and circumstances that have not only shaped the “attack and defense” relationship for many centuries, but also modified this formula of relations and ties, laying the foundation for the present time federative relations. The degree of recognition or denial of such relations by some people does not seem to put an end to this historical process and discussions about it. Will the “attack and defense” relations be the eternal shadow and phantom pain of such ties and relations, and will these shadows and pains be materialized in politics, economy, behavior and reactions of future generations of the one people and its branches?
Somebody may not agree with the answer given in the article and with the explanation of the Russian roots in Crimea. But even that somebody cannot but detect an acute and urgent importance of the issue connected with the current status and future of Crimea, a part of the Russian territory and state, not only for the present, but of the actual presence of the past in the present. The past, addressing the present as both a tradition and a legend. As a tradition to reproduce the features of culture of the European-Atlantic, Byzantine thinking, as a tradition to support the culture of the native Russian (old Russian) way of cognition, including this issue.
When the author writes in the abstract that: “historically, Russian roots appeared in Crimea naturally, in the period before Kiev Rus, they strengthened during the Kiev period of the Ancient Russian state,” we should pay attention not only to the physical presence of Russian roots in this territory, but also to the emergence, even the source of the Russian religious consciousness in the territory of Crimea. We speak of course, about the baptism of Prince Vladimir and the subsequent history of the spread of the Orthodoxy in the Russian land. Here, we not only support the author's approach in substantiating her main idea, but also draw attention to the fact that before us in about 1037 to 1050 this mission was fulfilled by the monk, ascetic, philosopher, poet and the first Russian Metropolitan Hilarion of Kiev, the author of the immortal work “The Word about Law and Grace...” Saint Hilarion, who timed “The Word” to the 50th anniversary of the Baptism of Rus, thought it necessary to say that the Law, Grace, and Truth “filled the whole earth and faith spread to all peoples, and reached our Russian people. And we praise our Prince Vladimir, who has baptized us.” [19]. Eschatological, religious Russian consciousness was at that time based on the tradition, which could not ignore all that was connected with Crimea and the city of Korsun (Chersonese). The deep meaning of such events, pointing to the Russian roots in Crimea and the Crimean roots in Russia and among the Russians, is that they go deep into the distant historical (even prehistoric) past, and Hilarion of Kiev was well aware of it. And if we do not follow this meaning, then these are our problems, our shortcomings and miscalculations.
L.F. Boltenkova’s turning to the distant past is important because it explains much in the ties between Crimea and Rus and the Russians roots in Crimea through the ties and relations of the changing and mobile population of Crimea and the adjacent Russ-Russian territories where population (tribes) were also mobile and successively changing during the huge historical period of time. In the historical narrative, the author confidently uses terms and concepts already proven by the historical science, but controversial and not completely understood, the semantic meanings of which are hidden behind them. This is especially true, when it concerns the connection of these concepts and their real historical subjects to the particular historical era and specific historical period. The most used in the article are terms and concepts that explain the location of the proto-state or state (Khaganate), city, geographical name, population (tribe) of the past eras, appearing in the territory of modern Crimea and Russ-Russia: Alans, Arabs, Scythians, Sarmatians, Huns, Goths, Greeks, Ugric peoples, Budins, Fissagets, Issedons, Tatars, Tauris, Kallipids, Alazones, Scythians-ploughmen, Persians, the tribe of Sinids, Slavs, Khazars, and nomads-Pechenegs. In order to understand not only the presence of the Russian roots in Crimea, but their natural, historical significance for the Russian tribe and for the population of Crimea, the author cites dozens or hundreds of tribes, each of which has always fought for its existence and thus created material and spiritual values. In the process of this historical creativity, these tribes left imperishable monuments of their activity, or the reality, destroyed and plunged, proofs lost even in memory. Some of these tribes turned into an artifact, and lost their value as actual facts or subjects of history. And, in our opinion, formed a conviction and a firm view, emphasizing the importance of vitality and survival of the tribe “Rus,” which could not but appear in Crimea.
The emergence of the Russian roots in Crimea is a natural and irresistible historical process that developed by someone's command in a specific (extant in memory and writing) historical time and mentally delineated boundaries and territories. It is possible to ignore this fact, or to shy away from it, to grimace about it or to distort such event and phenomenon (such tricks are in trend now), but even then its value and explanation would only strengthen because at sound judgments it is a right direction of thought reflecting the only correct interpretation of the historical past which has passed to the present. The author immediately, at the beginning of the article, in one phrase claims her position: “Let’s pay attention that Russians in Crimea are recorded historically from the IX century. That is, it is not a guess or an assumption, it is a historical fact.” All subsequent rhetoric and analysis is a confirmation of this position.
For this purpose, a wide picture of territorial spaces and subjects of historical process unfolds before us: from the Caspian sea to the Dnieper Nadporozhye, from the Volga region to the Northern part of the Black Sea coast, territories at the Kuban and Don rivers, the North Caucasus, even Western Siberia and Altai, the rivers (Volga, Oka, Vyatka), the cities (Kiev, Moscow, Sevastopol, Chersonese), the countries, proto-states and states (Scythia, Bosporus, Olbia, steppe and mountain Crimea, Tavria (Tavrika, Tavrida), Taman, Tmutarakan, Kuban, Kiev Rus, Moscow Rus, Siberia, Uzbek, Kazan, Astrakhan and Crimean khanates, Khazar Khaganate, Turkey, Rzeczpospolita). Introduction to the analysis and factography of such events and phenomena serve as the basis for an impartial analysis of the Russian roots in Crimea. How can it be otherwise, since from the ancient times the Crimean Peninsula has been the crossroad of not only sea transit routes, but the territory of movement for hundreds of ethnic groups and tribes. Anyway, even if you can find some flaws in the historical sequence of changes of the historical periods experienced by Crimea and its population, we still see a clear line that explains the rapid nature of movement of the population in its territory from the prehistoric period to the ancient time (Greek colonies, Roman protectorate), through the middle ages (the Crimean khanate, Ottoman influence) and up to the inclusion of Crimea in the Russian Empire, to the time of new and modern history, when Crimea was Ukrainian and then again Russian. It is not necessary to look for an existential essence in these historical transitions, let it remain the lot of scientists, if it were not biased by the political flair. Yet, we agree with the author that whatever was the degree and nature of the Russian roots in Crimea, no matter how historians and we determine their nature, it remains an imperishable fact and phenomenon. It is possible that the author’s explanation and interpretation are of interest only to those who treat the historical past and the contemporary events in which the population of the Crimea is involved with the same sincere empathy, sympathy and compassion, with which the author’s consciousness and feelings are permeated.
Yes, in the article, the author talks about the Russian roots in Crimea! It is undoubtedly the phenomenon difficult to explain and difficult to argue one’s position. To get out of such difficulties, L. F. Boltenkova has chosen, in our belief, the most optimal and effective way. Explaining her position, L. F. Boltenkova does not enter into a dispute with her opponents. We would like to emphasize again, that, perhaps, this is the most convenient and effective method: the topic and any aspect of it have been and will remain the subject of heated discussions for a long time, probably indefinitely. There is a reason and a pretext for this [1. Pp. 16-22; 2. P. 279-343; 3; 9. Pp. 184-226, 388-436; 7. Pp. 37-68; 8. Pp. 14-15; 13; 16; 6. Pp. 18-60; 5. 981. Pp. 30-66]. There are at least two important aspects of this issue or topic that remain debatable: a) whether the tribe “Rus” or the tribe Russy are related to the Russian people. That is, whether the modern Russians are direct heirs of the tribe Rus or its associations. b) How deep go the roots of the Russian presence in Crimea? Is there a more or less clear period of the Russian appearance in Crimea? Can it be traced to a particular era or a particular time? Is it possible to date the emergence of Russians in Crimea?
The logic of L. F. Boltenkova’s judgments and statements is based on the provision of the sufficient and high quality evidence confirming the presence of the Russian roots in Crimea. This is the level of a detached objective analysis of the germination of Russian roots in Crimea since the pre-Kiev period. And the Russian tribe (Rus), which, as L. F. Boltenkova writes, in the VI-VII centuries appeared on the political map of the world at first not as a state, but as militant groups (Slavic tribes) that attacked Byzantium. At that period, they were scattered.
In the aggregate, the author's judgments and reasoning are a kind of virtual conclusions that can reflect more or less accurately the real historical events and facts or can contradict the historical reality. In conclusion, we insist that from the standpoint of geopolitics and the historical process, the presented analysis is objective. All other shades of the content, approaches to the interpretation of the history of the subject, a selection of facts and arguments are possibly colored with emotions. The transition from history to modernity in the emotional presentation, which is implicit, but still present in the article, was in the essence made under the practical imperative, at the intersection of the desired and the actual.
All of us together, including Prof. L. F. Boltenkova and many of those who happen to get acquainted with the text of the article, shall not be ashamed to feel involved in the mental empathy of the geopolitical and broad historical canvas, in those acts and processes that collectively experienced Russians in Crimea and "Crimeans" in the Russian expanses. Is it not there that we have to look for the causes of modern changes in the life of Crimea, modern Russia and Ukraine? Changes have been always taking place! But no one’s vitality was undermined by anything, because, as L. F. Boltenkova says in the conclusion: "the history of ancient Russia, Moscow Russia, and the Russian (Russ) state is closely connected with Crimea since the beginning of our era: the Scythians, Sarmatians, Issedons, Khazars, Huns, etc., no matter what was its form and under whose influence it was. But most of all Moscow was provoked by the Crimean Tatars to war with them. Willing to turn the Russian state into their ulus, the Crimean khans eventually turned into Russian subjects. It happened in the process of bloody battles and attacks by the Crimean Tatars, but it happened.”
Only an unshakable vitality can explain the unfading creativity of Russians about Crimea, and the population of Crimea within Kiev and Moscow Russia. Their creative spirit did not rest then or after, when “ ... even Peter the Great failed to join Crimea. This was done by Catherine the Second only in 1783. She issued the Manifesto of April 8, 1783 "On the acceptance under the Russian power of the Crimean Peninsula, Taman and all Kuban lands.” ... G. A. Potemkin was appointed its Governor-General. In an extremely short time, new cities were built on the new site: Odessa, Sevastopol, Simferopol, Kherson, Nikolaev, they are all Russian cities.”
Of course, the described historical events, phenomena and processes were also very painful for everyone. The author of the article says: “In its purest form, Russia had to fight for Crimea for 26 years, straining the whole country. Where there were fights, Russian blood permeated the land.” Many times the roots of the Russian presence in Crimea were cut. And many times, it seemed that the emerging unity of material, economic, trade, and human relations, intertribal and personal relationships disintegrated under the countless manifested diseases. What can be done with these diseases in history, in present or in future? Is it appropriate to treat such diseases the way human diseases are treated by applying the rule that there is no disease in general, only an individual disease of organs and cells [18. P. 418]. Starting from this initial position, applying it to the article reviewed by us, and to the author's judgments and approaches, we can also say, that Prof. L. F. Boltenkova, like a doctor, makes the correct diagnosis and gives names to the historical subjects (diseases). In this way, she performs her professional duty. This is the essence of the profession for the doctor and, we assume, for the historian. Correction of historical errors, their healing will take place in future by itself with the help of techniques appropriate for the case. If not by itself then by the agents (subjects) known to the science and social practice, the historian has no direct relation to them. The author of the article is also outside the subjects and methods of healing and recovery of the Russian roots in Crimea. She has only diagnosed the case and named what has been diagnosed.
NOTES:
(1) See: L. Lvov Relations between Zaporozhye and Crimea. Odessa, 1895. The book tells its readers about the relationship between Zaporozhye and Crimea after the Tatar invasion, about the factors of convergence (political, economic), it also contains comments to the news about these relations that has survived// https://runivers.ru/lib/book3114/9791/
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4. Boltenkova L.F. “God's idea” about Ancient Russia [«Zadumka Boga» o Drevney Rusi] // Issues of National and Federative Relations. 2019. V. 9. No. 7 (52) (In Russ.).
5. Chirovsky N. Introduction to Ukrainian History. Vol. 1. N.Y. 1981.
6. Chubatiy М. Principality of Rus-Ukraine and emergence of the three East Slavic Nations. New-York – Paris, 1964 (In Ukrain.).
7. Doroshenko D. Essay on the history of Ukraine. V.1. Warsaw, 1932 (In Ukrain.).
8. Dobryanskiy М.D. Ukraine and Russia. Rome, 1989 (In Ukrain.).
9. Grushevski М.S. History of Ukraine – Rus. V. 1. Kiev, 1913 (In Ukrain.).
10. Medvedev N.P., Nesterchuk O.A., Slizovskiy D.E. Post-Soviet Commonwealth (CIS). Are there any resources left for a new reintegration? [Postsovetskoye sodruzhestvo (SNG). Ostalis' li resursy dlya novoy reintegratsii?] // Przeglad Strategiczny. 2018. V. 11 (In Russ.).
11. Medvedev N.P., Maistat M.A., Krasnov L.N., Geleransky P.S., Ivaina M., Makukhin A.V., Vysotsky A.V., Kamara S.B., Medvedev V.N., Kettsyan G.V., Perkova D.V., Chan H.T. Ethnopolitical regionalism: autonomy and separatism. The collective monography [Etnopoliticheskaya regionalistika: avtonomiya i separatizm. Kollektivnaya monografiya] / Moscow, 2018. Series: Works by Professor N. P. Medvedev’s scientific school. Issue 11 (In Russ.).
12. Medvedev N.P., Glebov V.A., Madatov А.S. To the Question of Typologization of the Russian Regions // Political Science Issues. 2018. Т. 8. № 1 (29).
13. Nasonov А.N. “Russian land" and the formation of the territory of the old Russian state [«Russkaya zemlya» i obrazovaniye territorii Drevnerusskogo gosudarstva]. М., 1951 (In Russ.).
14. Slizovskiy D.E., Glebov V.А., Medvedev N.P. Review of L. F. Boltenkova's article “On the question of Ukrainian statehood” without fear and horror about Ukrainian statehood [Retsenziya na stat'yu L.F. Boltenkovoy «K voprosu ob ukrainskoy gosudarstvennosti» bez strakha i uzhasa ob ukrainskoy gosudarstvennosti] // Eurasian Union: Issues of International Relations. 2018. No. 3 (25) (In Russ.).
15. Slizovskiy D.E., Medvedev N.P., Kornouhov D. Review of L. F. Boltenkova's article “What Slavic tribe was the first to call itself Russ?” [Retsenziya na stat'yu L.F. Boltenkovoy «Kakoye slavyanskoye plemya pervym nazvalo sebya Rus'yu?»] // Issues of National and Federative Relations. 2019. V. 9. No. 3 (48) (In Russ.).
16. Tikhomirov М.N. Origin of the names “Rus” and “Russian land” [Proiskhozhdeniye nazvaniya «Rus'» i «Russkaya zemlya»] // Soviet Ethnography. 1947. No. 6-7 (In Russ.).
17. Yermachenkova V.D. Influence of the political status of Crimea on the Russian-Ukrainian relations [Vliyaniye politicheskogo statusa Kryma na rossiysko-ukrainskiye otnosheniya] // Political Science Issues. 2019. V. 9. No. 7 (47) (In Russ.).
18. Zweig S. Historical portraits [Istoricheskiye portrety]. М.: АСТ: Аstrel, 2011 (In Russ.).
19. https://azbyka.ru/otechnik/Ilarion_Kievskij/slovo_o_zakone_i_blagodati/
SAVALKHA O. Political Image of Modern Russia in the Arab World Countries
DOI 10.35775/PSI.2020.34.4.011
О. SAVALKHA Postgraduate student at the Department of humanities and social sciences, Peoples' Friendship University of Russia, Moscow, Russia
POLITICAL IMAGE OF MODERN RUSSIA IN THE ARAB WORLD COUNTRIES
This article analyzes the image of modern Russia in the Arab world, identifies the main factors in the formation of the international image of the country, explores the question of the peculiarities of perception of the image of Russia by representatives of the Arab states. The article focuses on the difficulties of building a favorable image of Russia in the Arab world and ways to overcome them. The authors investigate the question of whether Russia, as the successor of the USSR, was able to maintain its image in the Arab states in connection with the events of the XXI century, including the Arab spring protests, the crisis in Ukraine and the conflict in Syria. There are also examples of the use of the “soft power” in connection with the formation of a positive image of Russia in the Arab world. Special emphasis is placed on the influence of the mass media as the main political and psychological mechanism of influence on the formation of the country's image.
Key words: Russia, Middle East and North Africa, Arab countries, Russia's political image, international image.
Today it is quite difficult to find a country that would not be interested in building a positive image. A positive image helps to strengthen the geopolitical status, helps to create a more stable environment for the country's integration into the world space, and helps to build mutually beneficial economic and political ties. In the modern world, Russia has a great weight on the world stage, but does this allow it to maintain its positive image?
Creation of a positive image requires a lot of efforts, it is necessary to take into account the current trends in the formation of the global information and communication space, the expansion of the network of relationships at the interregional and interstate levels [6]. In this regard, it is important to take into account that the formation of the image of any state depends on the relationships with the state, acting in this role as a subject-prototype of the image of the country [11]. That is why it is important to take into account that the image of the USSR during the Cold War was perceived quite differently in the West and in the Middle East. In the face of confrontation, the West, especially the United States, tried to resist the Soviet Union, creating in the world its political and social image as a tyrant state that prevents the spread of democratic rights and freedoms [5]. As for the Middle East, many Arab countries perceived the USSR as an ally that provided humanitarian and military assistance in conflict situations. In this vein, the USSR had a positive image in the minds of the Arab countries, despite the US statements about its “ideologization” [3. Pp. 50-57].
Subsequently, after the fall of the bipolar world and the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia was faced with the question of restoring a positive image in the Arab countries, but did it succeed at the proper level? What factors currently influence the formation of the image? How has it changed since the Cold War? What methods does Russia use to create a positive image in the Arab countries? How does the current situation in Ukraine and Syria affect the political consciousness of the Arab world? These and other issues need to be clarified, because the Middle East is a region that attracts special attention because of its strategic importance in the foreign policy of the Russian Federation.
Does Russia have the positive or negative image in the Arab world? Before analyzing the image of Russia in the Arab countries, it is necessary to pay special attention to the situation in each country. The attitude of the Persian Gulf countries to Russia has always differed from the countries of the so-called Al-sham and Maghreb. Russia has not aroused much confidence in the GCC countries since the Cold War, when GCC countries purposefully set a course for developing relations with the United States [4]. Such attitude is very import when we talk of the influence on the minds of the population of the Arab countries. Members of the Cooperation Council for the Arab states of the Gulf have created such TV companies as al-Arabiya and al-Jazeera which broadcast in almost all Arab countries. Given the negative attitude of the GCC countries to Russia's support for the ruling regime of Syria, Russia is consistently described by the leading Arab media as “an opponent of the Syrian people, supporting the bloody tyrant Assad” [10]. These news channels also actively discuss the situation in Ukraine and the Arab side condemns the actions of Russia, describing them as a violation of the international law. Another stumbling block is the Iranian nuclear program, Russian attitude to which is more constructive than that of the Western countries. Given that the GCC countries see Iran as the main threat to their national security, Russia's position is unacceptable to them, which significantly damages Russia’s image in the Arab world [2]. Al-Arabiya and al-Jazeera news agencies openly talk about Moscow's support for the Tehran-Damascus-Hezbollah axis and stressing that Moscow provides them with humanitarian and military assistance, which cannot characterize Russia as a peacemaker and a reliable partner of the region [12]. In an interview with the Foreign Policy Agency, the Syrian writer Munzer Hallum said that Russia has a number of problems that prevent it from creating a positive image in the Arab countries. First of all, this is a developed relationship with Israel, which is traditionally perceived by the Arab public as an enemy. Second, Russia is weakly involved in the regional agenda and does not develop Russian-Arab relations. Relations with Arab countries are based mainly on military cooperation, which is of little interest to the ordinary Arab people [10].
Despite the fact that in relation to the Syrian problem, Russia relies on the norms of international law, defending the preservation of its integrity and preventing external interference in the internal affairs of the country, the public of other Arab countries perceives it quite differently, associating Russia's actions with dictatorship and violence. This was also facilitated by Moscow's rather detached attitude to the Arab spring events. While the “Arab street” supported the need to overthrow the unwanted ruling regimes, Russia took a restrained position, trying not to comment on these actions and supported preservation of the ruling power [9]. Accordingly, the Arab public did not like it, which was one of the reasons for undermining Russia’s authority. If in years 2000, the Arab countries had hoped that the successor of the USSR would return and render them financial, economic and military assistance, after the events of the Arab spring the Arab consciousness has changed in favor of the West, which strongly supported the fall of these regimes [7].
All of the above factors seemingly indicated to a negative image of Russia in the Arab countries. However, this is not the case. Despite the fact that the Arab public since the Cold War perceives Russia as a force opposed to the West, it does not bear a negative connotation. Studies have shown that Arab society does not fully trust the West and the Western media, which, in their opinion, are hostile to Islam and the Arab world. The level of trust declined after reports on Islamic terrorism and condemnation of migration flows from the Middle East and North Africa, which were highlighted as a destabilizing factor in the domestic politics of Western countries. In this case, Russia has managed to find a more favorable position, since all the statements of the leader of the state V. Putin and the speeches of Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov spoke about tolerance and the need to protect religious interests. Indeed, at the political and psychological level, this has brought the countries of the Arab world and Russia closer together.
Nor can we ignore the events in Iraq in 2003. The American invasion was rather harshly condemned by the Russian side. Russia's compliance with the principles of international law and open challenge to American policy in the Middle East were perceived by Arab countries as a hope that their rights could be protected by an actor of external force, that Russia returned to the Middle East after the collapse of the Soviet Union [8]. These factors can not be perceived as positive for the image of Russia in the Arab world.
Positive image of Russia – how to form and develop. Many factors influence the formation of a positive image of the country, but one of the most effective is the use of “soft power.” As is mentioned earlier, the image is significantly influenced by the media. But if al-Jazeera and al-Arabiya quite often present Russia in a neutral or even negative way, are there any TV channels where Russia is presented in a more favorable light? Yes, they exist and moreover, they develop quite intensively. One example is the Arab division of the Russian TV company Russia today, which broadcasts throughout the Arab world. This TV channel broadcasts news about Russia and pays great attention to Russian-Arab relations. Of course, Russia's policy today is aimed at building a positive image of Russia in the eyes of Arab viewers. Moreover, in recent years, the Arabic division of the TV channel Russia today was able to gain popularity among the Arab population and overtake the Arabic-speaking European and American TV channels [1]. A similar TV channel is the developing company Russia in Arabic which pays a lot of attention to life in Russia and the destruction of existing stereotypes about it.
The Federal Agency Rossotrudnichestvo operates as one of the tools for building a positive image of Russia in such Arab countries as Lebanon, the UAE, Palestine, Syria, Jordan, Egypt, Tunisia and Morocco. In these countries, there are Russian centers of culture and science that pay attention not only to the humanitarian sphere, in particular the study of the Russian language and cultural events, but also to scientific cooperation and strengthening ties with the Russian Diaspora. Thanks to the RCCS, residents of Arab countries have the opportunity to form a more objective opinion about modern Russia and its material and spiritual potential. Moreover, the RCCS pay great attention to the promotion of educational services. Students who come to Russia have a significant influence on the representation of its image in their country. They return as highly qualified specialists to their countries and contribute to the development of economic and political relations between the states. On a subconscious level, Russia is close to them in spirit, such students know the mentality of its citizens, they are familiar with its features, which certainly can not but affect the further positive development of relations. Russia should pay special attention to the students from Arab countries specializing in international relations, economy and law, because they can later speak for or against any international decision of Russia. A striking example is Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas, who is a graduate of the Russian Peoples' Friendship University. It’s obvious that the head of state can significantly influence the consciousness of his people and, if he has special relations with a particular country, it helps to establish relations in various fields of activity, something we note in the bilateral relations between Russia and Palestine. The presence of the RCSC in Palestine, the holding of joint events with the Russian and Palestinian sides, the number of Russian-speaking Palestinian specialists and diplomats, the number of students from Palestine in Russia-all this testifies to the mutual friendship and trust between the states. That is why the use of such “soft power” may well change Russia's image in the Arab world.
Conclusion. Summing up, it is important to note that at the moment the image of Russia in the Arab countries is in a rather precarious position. In the Gulf countries, where al-Jazeera and al-Arabiya TV channels mainly broadcast, speaking negatively about Russia's interference in the Ukrainian affairs, about the support for the Syrian ruling regime, about Russia's close ties with Iran and support for the Shiite organization Hezbollah, Russia’s image is not positive; in the countries of Al-sham and the Maghreb the situation changed after the events of the Arab spring, local newspapers wrote about Russia’s attitude in a very reserved way and even negatively. It is important to understand that Russia's image in the Arab countries may not be at the highest level however, Russia should not give up its geopolitical interests. It is necessary to find a balance in building its foreign policy and promoting the country's image. In this regard, special attention should be paid to the use of “soft power,” development of the work of the RCSC in the Arab countries, attraction of foreign students to study in Russia, organization of joint cultural events and creation of new opportunities for the Arabic-language media in Russia.
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DAVYDOV V.N. Alienation of Information as a Political and Legal Problem
DOI 10.35775/PSI.2020.34.4.010
V.N. DAVYDOV Candidate of Sciences (political sciences), Associate Professor, Deputy Director of the Institute of contemporary politics, Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia, Moscow, Russia
ALIENATION OF INFORMATION AS A POLITICAL AND LEGAL PROBLEM
Artificial intelligence at the service of espionage, covert control over dissent, invasion of citizens’ personal space and other negative effects (costs) of the digital revolution have attracted the attention of our regular author. The alienation of information and the encroachment on intellectual property that accompany global communications require not only improvements of international law, but also compensation of damage to the rights holders and creators of creative content.
Key words: copyright, artificial intelligence, intellectual property, IT-technologies, constitutional rights and freedoms of citizens, private space, unconventional control, political communications, manipulation in the information space, NATO, Pentagon, FBI, «Forshungsamt», digital economy, CIA, Wikileaks.
In my archive, there is an article from the Italian newspaper Corriere della Sera, written by the French philosopher Andre Glucksmann under a meaningful headline: “Deep Slumber of Democracy at the Time of Cyber Espionage” [28]. The text is typical for modern tendentious, egocentric and arrogant European discourse. “For several months, due to my health condition, I was forced to stop my daily reading of newspapers. When I returned to contacts with reality, I was under the impression that nothing had changed,” the publicist admitted.
Let us leave on the editor's conscience the propagated delusion of the learned man about the fact that the media content, that is, the displayed, secondary reality in the philosopher's interpretation, has become primary... Nevertheless, Andre Glucksmann met with “the newspaper reality” and continued to interpret it in his own way. Unfortunately, in the spirit of the Cold war: “Putin is whistling the refrain of the “foreign conspiracy,” so dear to the hearts of Stalin and Brezhnev, and eliminates, through friends and scoundrels, the sprouts of democracy in Ukraine and Georgia,” Andre Glucksmann writes further... “Countries with malicious power (?!) are blocking the activities of the UN Security Council and democratic institutions are in deep slumber. Nothing has changed…"
If the latter statement is addressed to the US foreign policy, then the French philosopher is undoubtedly right. In recent years, the overseas patron of Europe has been accused many times of abuse of information technologies, double standards, cynicism and hypocrisy in foreign policy. Washington, according to objective analysts, has long lost the right to speak as a standard of democracy [25; 5. Pp. 91-124; 15]. As America was seen, for example, by A. Tocqueville in 1831 [23]. On the contrary, contrary to the apology of America by A. Glucksmann, human rights defenders and independent experts from Russia [7. Pp. 33-44] and Latin American countries pointed out to the White House that espionage practices in social networks and communications are inadmissible. They referred to the numerous violations of constitutional norms and human rights by the American intelligence services, agents of the policy of total cyber espionage, revealed by D. Assange and E. Snowden.
As it turned out, Washington in its “crusade” for exclusive and closed information did not make exceptions for its European allies or for its closest neighbors. The United States, for example, used Brazil's telecommunications infrastructure to intercept huge amounts of information circulating between Latin American governments. Unabashed specialists of Fort Meade got acquainted with the correspondence of F. Calderon, President of the United Mexican States, [26. P. 26] and other officials.
That does not fit with the principle that US Secretary of State Henry Stimson promulgated in the 30s of the last century: “Gentlemen do not read other people's letters.” On the contrary, his CIA antipode Allen Dulles insisted on reading foreign diplomatic correspondence. Combining “technical innovations with the skills of classical espionage” [16. P. 10]. Head of the cloak and dagger department devoted an entire section to the subject of perusal in his memoirs [4. Pp. 121-136]. As follows from the text, functionaries from Langley unceremoniously invaded the communications of state and public institutions, as well as citizens of foreign countries.
The information space of democracy is shrinking by the standards of totalitarianism. It is sad that the information space of sovereign societies under the pressure of pervasive spyware continues to shrink by the standards of totalitarianism. Recall that Hitler's Germany was the leader in the organization of large-scale control and perusal of correspondence of citizens in Europe. The Nazi regime, like the current pillar of democracy, was no stranger to spying on employees of foreign diplomatic missions, or listening to the telephone networks of German citizens.
In his story “Face to face” Julian Semyonov was perhaps the first to describe the technology of theft of confidential information in the Third Reich in the Russian documentary. There is no need to reproduce this canonical text of the author of the Stirlitz Saga. But we will pay attention to some plots. FA or Forschungsamt (Forschungsamt Research Institute-VD), directly subordinated to Heinrich Goering from the moment of its establishment was an influential anonymous power that decided the fate of millions of Germans. With 6,000 employees, eavesdropping stations in 15 major German cities, representatives in all post offices, specialists in encryption and decryption, the FA spied on the Germans better than any other agency in those days. On average, one thousand phones were tapped at a time.
It is known for certain that the US occupation authorities took missile technology out of defeated Germany as trophies. Their own research centers and new high-tech sectors of the economy were created using a foreign research and production base [29]. Probably, the chief of the Nazi secret service General R. Gehlen (1), a partner of the United States in the secret war against the USSR, as well as his compatriot SS Sturmbannfuhrer V. von Braun, shared professional secrets with his overseas colleagues [30], including total surveillance methods.
However, there were enough virtuosos of espionage with “fine hearing” in the United States as well. It will not be a big assumption to think that the US intelligence and counterintelligence agencies employed new citizens or green card applicants as the Agency staff. For example, the above mentioned CIA Chief in his memoirs claimed that the presence of the Soviet missiles in Cuba (in 1962) was confirmed also with the help of Cuban emigrants [4. P. 117].
The CIA non-core assets. Immigrants, judging by the CIA experience, are excellently suited and fit (?!) for unseemly affairs in foreign countries. For example, as part of MKULTRA # 143 Project, the CIA provided Dr. E. Bennett with $ 20,000 to create bacteria that destroy petroleum products. Dr. Bennett found a substance that, when added to diesel fuel, destroyed any engine or unit. This substance the CIA operatives used in 1967 when they sent saboteurs from among the Cuban refugees to France to infect lubricants intended for Cuba... The operation was successfully carried out and became a part of the CIA plan that was carried out from the 1960s to the 1970s and was aimed at destroying the Cuban economy [14. P. 306-307].
The anti-human style of dealing with immigrants, the CIA non-core asset, just as the total eavesdropping that undermines trust in international cooperation, are borrowed by the US from the Old World. The cross border flow of subversive practices of intelligence agencies and secret organizations is long and steady.
Having refined the methods of secretly controlling the circulation of information flows in the new technological order and extracting the benefits of alienated information at home, the US intelligence community has extended them to Europe and other continents. Some experts say that with the help of Echelon espionage technology, created in 1948, Washington became aware of the preparation of a contract between France and Saudi Arabia. The deal involved a purchase by Riyadh of French Airbus aircrafts worth hundreds millions of dollars. American “intermediaries” managed to prevent the signing of this contract and offered Saudi Arabia their Boeing jets at discounted prices [31]. As they say, nothing personal – just business…
The fate of several other international transactions was similar. For example, the sale of French Leclerc tanks to the Arab Emirates. In 2000, experts of the European Commission seemed to be intended to refer this case to the International Court of Justice in the Hague. But the scandal did not end with anything other than a lively controversy in the press.
In the same style of unfair competition, the US is fighting Russia in the European energy market, where Washington imposes its energy resources on its partners, primarily in the NATO bloc (contrary to the European Energy Charter) [17. P. 610]. By the way, the US energy resources are by a third more expensive than Russian ones. At the same time, the United States puts its rival in an unkind light in the press, social networks, and reproaches it for political self-interest; from the rostrum of international platforms, American lobbies intimidate fuel consumers with the dictatorship of the Moscow energy monopoly…
Dissecting the international information array, the US intelligence services are aware of all events and especially those that, according to experts from Langley, are threats to America. And it does not matter if an episode or two of someone's personal life gets into the spy networks. These are the inevitable costs of Big Brother's presence in global communications.
Artificial intelligence (AI) significantly simplifies the control of intelligence agencies over the population of their own and foreign territories. That is, “the ability of artificial systems to solve intellectual problems for which there is no solution algorithm” [10. P. 29].
Superbrain can become a mobile platform that monitors the health and physical condition of citizens. For example, a pacemaker program or micro-sensors make it possible to monitor the heart activity, blood pressure, blood glucose and other important health indicators.
The healthcare industry is looking for ways to remotely monitor the physical and mental health of patients for humane reasons in order to quickly assess the well-being of chipped patients and then carry out remote adjustment of the optimal life parameters, urgently removing problems... And this is exactly the kind of progress in medicine that we have to worry about, since cyber attacks can be directed not only at critical industrial facilities, but also at chips embedded in the human body for life reasons, especially if the person is a state secret carrier.
Pentagon is leaking like a sieve. Judging by the volume of investments, the modern state protects national interests, while funds to protect the interests of citizens from the arbitrariness of hackers are allocated on a residual basis. Business in this sensitive area of the economy, unfortunately, also demonstrates inexcusable carelessness. So, in violation of the Federal Law of 26.07.2017 “On security of critical information infrastructure of the Russian Federation", less than a third of Russian organizations planned a corresponding expenditure item in their budget in 2018. As a result (according to law enforcement agencies), 141,552 crimes committed with the use of computer and telecommunications technologies were recorded in our country... Most of the offenses that fall under the sanctions of Article 272 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation are related to illegal access to computer information [34].
These depressing facts simultaneously indicate to the coexistence of two IT communications trends. On the one hand, national and regional network clusters succumb to the gravity of global web networks and gravitate towards them; on the other hand, there is an equally obvious pattern of self-restriction of Internet users ' contacts for security reasons.
Russian cyber security experts constantly repeat how important information protection is for every user of IT technologies [18. P. 1, 8]. In fact, this is also evidenced by eloquent figures: if in 2017 the total damage from cybercrimes was estimated at one trillion, this figure may increase to two trillion by 2020. Experts predict that with the advent of the 5th era of telecommunications (5G), the vulnerability of companies and consumers will become even more obvious [11. P. 75].
The French philosopher Andre Glucksmann, who was sympathetic to the American secret services that leaked secret information, should recommend a publication in the Washington Post that analyzes the scale of US losses from the “malicious initiative of private Bradley Manning.”
A task force led by retired General Robert Carr, consisting of 125 people, was created to investigate this offense! As R. Carr said at the military trial, the group studied more than 700 thousand stamped documents about US operations in Afghanistan, Iraq and other regions.
A military court in Fort Meade, Maryland, acquitted private Manning of the most serious charge of aiding the enemy, but found him guilty of most of the more than 20 other counts, including espionage, theft, and computer fraud. On these charges, the former intelligence officer faced up to 136 years in prison [36]. However, on August 21, 2013, a military tribunal sentenced Manning to 35 years in prison for passing secret documents to Wikileaks. A gender-changing transgender (Bradley’s new name is Chelsea Elizabeth) was pardoned by President Barack Obama in January 2017, who significantly reduced the prison term. Ex-man Chelsea Elizabeth was released on May 17, 2017. As a self-justification, the newly converted human rights activist wrote an article “CIA executioners and their leaders who approved their actions must be brought before the law” [37].
Supporting the righteous anger of the de facto prisoner of conscience, we note that on formal grounds, that the rank and file took an example from their commanders and superiors. In particular, the facts of blatant neglect of official duties to protect military secrets were demonstrated by the Pentagon's generals during the reign of the 44th US President. Suffice it to recall the scandalous dismissals of generals Stanley McChrystal, David Petraeus, James Cartwright, and others (3). And how can we demand pedantry and loyalty to the oath from the ordinary soldiers of the visible and invisible fronts after that? Is it because of that that Obama condescended to private Manning's misdeeds?
Intellectual property is sacred, but … Hacker attacks are the surface layer, figuratively speaking, of the scanned problem; a formal assessment of the extreme relationships of global actors in the web space. The essence of the problem of gratuitous anonymous consumption of an information product is in the alienation of information, illegal confiscation of intellectual property of individuals, legal entities and collective rights holders. Judging by the analysis of current international law, this aspect of the global circulation of information is still a concern for lawmakers [1. Pp. 9-12]. There are no absolute indicators of financial losses of robbed content creators. Although attempts to understand the current political and legal problem were made by the scientific community, copyright holders, judicial authorities and diplomatic circles [3. Pp. 54-71; 20. Pp. 86-96]. Thus, at the initiative of Moscow, the UN General Assembly resolution 53/70 “Achievements in the field of information and telecommunications in the context of international security” was adopted on 04.12. 1998. In 2011 and 2015, Russia also co-sponsored the “Rules of conduct in the field of international information security” (IIB), distributed on behalf of the SCO member states as an official document of the 66th and 69th sessions of the UN General Assembly. The result of joint efforts of the nations was the approval of Resolution 73/27 “Achievements in the field of information and telecommunications in the context of international security” at the 73rd session of the UN General Assembly on December 5, 2018.
Unfortunately, the set of rules (13 rules) of the international legal act does not reflect a new class of threats in the field of intellectual labor, which the expert community pays attention to. We are talking about at least three categories of objects that need legal protection: the creation of artificial intelligence; the rights to automatically collected information and big data. “Blog posts, podcasts, music bits, and neural network pictures (4) are new objects of copyright,” the industry newspaper expresses the interests of the creative class. Their legal status has not yet been settled. How can authors protect their rights?” [19. P. 3].
For example, the classic of modern sociology N. Luman believes that “security in a strict, risk-free sense does not exist at all” [12. Pp. 240-247]. This does not mean that you should not care about protecting information – a national treasure, a strategic resource of competition. On the opposite, taking the logic of the German sociologist: information (according to Luman) is a decaying product. It remains potential and disappears when updated. In other words, as long as the information is not used, its functional cycle – from creation to consumption (processing) is not completed. In social practice, other people's creative ideas are appropriated even at the stage of understanding the idea, not to mention plagiarism, imitation or copying of commercially viable projects [6. Pp. 766-786].
In the competition for intellectual resources, unscrupulous competitors, whose habits are mentioned above, consume even semi-finished products and drafts; they copy promising developments in the humanities and exact sciences. If before intelligence agents did not hesitate to shake the contents of the bins in the offices of design bureaus and laboratories, today, you don't even have to wear gloves to look through your competitors ' archives in the network's cloud safes.
It is sad if the copyright holder (the author, the inventor), because of the arbitrariness of espionage structures or hackers, finds himself in the second or third role. His invention, essay, film, etc. are used anonymously, other people benefit from “actualization” of his property in private or public. At the same time, the copyright holder, if for some reason he did not have time to legally secure his status, is doomed to experience material and moral costs, to waste time and money for the expertise of litigation. However due to the specifics of information rejection technologies, the respondent does not have an address. Anonymous people do not fear prosecution.
* * *
A few words as preliminary conclusions. First, the article by A. Glucksmann, which gave me a chance to debate in absentia, is good in that the author willingly or unwittingly lead his readers to the common idea that the principle of equal and indivisible security should be extended to the sphere of information exchanges.
Secondly, under the influence of the gravity of the epicenter of web networks, regional nodes and national network clusters are woven into a single information space, and on the other hand, there is a self-restriction of Internet users' contacts for security reasons. What should be recognized as a limitation of the possibilities of civilization.
Third, despite the varying speed of evolution of high technologies and regulatory legislation, the international community will have to adapt them to the requirements of the time taking into account the interests of all people and each web user individually.
NOTES:
(1) What is evidenced by the memoirs of R. Gehlen published in Russia in different years: Gehlen R. War of intelligence. Secret operations of the German secret services. 1942-1971. Moscow: Tsentrpoligraf 1999; Department "East". Secret operations of Western intelligence services against the USSR. M.: Algorithm, 2011.
(2) A fair share of artificial noise in the web space is produced by the A. Robbin’s program (USA). The perfect tool of hybrid warfare is a robotic system that creates content from raw data, reproduces up to two thousand texts per second. Machine intelligence (without the participation of journalists) can produce up to a billion articles and 500 thousand tweets a year. See: Davydov V.N. Information expansion: control, deterrence, countermeasures. M.: Khranitel, ECA, 2014. P. 13.
(3) In a short period of time, Commander of the US and NATO forces in Afghanistan General Stanley McChrystal, head of CIA David Petraeus and vice chairman of the US Joint Chiefs of Staff retired Marine general James Cartwright were dismissed from their posts for political, technological, corruption, or personal reasons; in the same row is Commander, US Africa Command four-star general William E. “Kip” Ward.
(4) A pictorial portrait of Edmond de Belami, created by the neural network and imagination of French students, was sold at Christie's auction for 432,500 US dollars.
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30. https://www.litmir.me/br/?b=159и226 &p =1.
31. https://fakty.ua/109809-pri-pomocshi-shpionskoj-programmy-quot-eshelon-quot-soedinennym-shtatam-udalos-sorvat-neskolko-krupnyh-mezhdunarodnyh-sdelok.
32. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v =zHi8PHR
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35. https://www.inopressa.ru/pwa/article/24 Jun2013/corriere/cyber.html.
36. http://ria.ru/world/20130801 /953452813. html#ixzz2ahDNk3CF.
37. https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki%B8.
38. https://sumip.ru/biblioteka/avtorskoye-pravo/mezhdunarodnoe-avtorskoe-pravo/#int1.